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  1. Deaths of despair and the incidence of excess mortality in 2020
    Erschienen: December 2020
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / National Bureau of Economic Research ; 28303
    Schlagworte: Sterblichkeit; Coronavirus; Infektionskrankheit; Drogenkonsum; Suizid; Vergleich; USA
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  2. Three myths about federal regulation
    Erschienen: May 2020
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / National Bureau of Economic Research ; 27233
    Schlagworte: Regierung; Regulierung; Staatliche Einflussnahme; Vergleich; Umweltstandard; Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse; USA
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  3. The Backward Art of Slowing the Spread? Congregation Efficiencies during COVID-19
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Were workers more likely to be infected by COVID-19 in their workplace, or outside it? While both economic models of the pandemic and public health policy recommendations often presume that the workplace is less safe, this paper seeks an answer both... mehr

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    Were workers more likely to be infected by COVID-19 in their workplace, or outside it? While both economic models of the pandemic and public health policy recommendations often presume that the workplace is less safe, this paper seeks an answer both in micro data and economic theory. The available data from schools, hospitals, nursing homes, food processing plants, hair stylists, and airlines show employers adopting mitigation protocols in the spring of 2020. Coincident with the adoption, infection rates in workplaces typically dropped from well above household rates to well below. When this occurs, the sign of the disease externality from participating in large organizations changes from negative to positive, even while individuals continue to have an incentive to avoid large organizations due to the prevention costs they impose on members. Rational cooperative prevention sometimes results in infectious-disease patterns that are opposite of predictions from classical epidemiology

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w28737
    Schlagworte: Coronavirus; Epidemie; Gesundheitsrisiko; Infektionsschutz; Arbeitsplatz; USA
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  4. The Value of Employer-Sponsored Health Insurance
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Based on published estimates of its price elasticity of demand and of tax wedges, as well as the method of revealed preference, I estimate that the annual social value of ESI is about $1.5 trillion beyond what policyholders, their employers, and... mehr

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    Based on published estimates of its price elasticity of demand and of tax wedges, as well as the method of revealed preference, I estimate that the annual social value of ESI is about $1.5 trillion beyond what policyholders, their employers, and taxpayers pay for it. The private component of that value, which in some respects is the other side of "job lock," derives in part from group plans, with the group determined by many characteristics other than the demand for healthcare. With voluntary groups formed this way, adverse risk selection is reduced, the groups can be effective at obtaining substantial discounts and rebates for their members, and division of labor employed in shopping for health providers. ESI is also a mechanism for employers to act on their incentives for a healthy and productive workforce. External effects include tax externalities (in both directions), encouraging work, and easing government expenditure obligations by helping to prevent people from going without health insurance

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w28590
    Schlagworte: Betriebliche Sozialleistungen; Private Krankenversicherung; Schätzung; Wohlfahrtsanalyse; USA
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  5. The Incidence and Magnitude of the Health Costs of In-person Schooling during the COVID-19 Pandemic
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    The health costs of in-person schooling during the pandemic, if any, fall primarily on the families of students, largely due to the fact that students significantly outnumber teachers. Data from North Carolina, Wisconsin, Australia, England, and... mehr

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    The health costs of in-person schooling during the pandemic, if any, fall primarily on the families of students, largely due to the fact that students significantly outnumber teachers. Data from North Carolina, Wisconsin, Australia, England, and Israel covering almost 80 million person-days in school help assess the magnitude of the fatality risks of in-person schooling (with mitigation protocols), accounting for the age and living arrangements of students and teachers. The risks of in-person schooling to teachers are comparable to the risks of commuting by automobile. Valued at a VSL of $10 million, the average daily fatality cost ranges from $0.01 for an unvaccinated young teacher living alone to as much as $29 for an elderly and unvaccinated teacher living with an elderly and unvaccinated spouse. COVID-19 risk avoidance may also be more amenable to Bayesian updating and selective protection than automobile fatalities are. The results suggest that economic behaviors can sometimes invert epidemiological patterns when it comes to the spread of infectious diseases in human populations

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w28619
    Schlagworte: Schule; Coronavirus; Gesundheitsrisiko; Infektionsschutz; Gesundheitskosten; Vergleich; Wisconsin; North Carolina; USA; Australien; England
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  6. Personal Increasing Returns
    Analytics and Applications
    Erschienen: March 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    The human capital investment model with endogenous labor supply is generalized to consumer and health behaviors while retaining the tractability of comparative-static analysis of a single first-order condition. Accounting for the endogenous... mehr

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    The human capital investment model with endogenous labor supply is generalized to consumer and health behaviors while retaining the tractability of comparative-static analysis of a single first-order condition. Accounting for the endogenous specialization responses is essential to properly distinguish supply and demand factors and to understand how the magnitude of their effects vary across time and circumstances. Even signing effects of policy interventions can hinge on the existence and extent of personal increasing returns. Applications include the gender gap in earnings, the dynamics of substance abuse, effects of taxes on human capital, the tradeoff between product quality and quantity, and unintended consequences of energy regulation. Metrics are provided for assessing the extent of personal increasing returns

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w29832
    Schlagworte: Humankapital; Bildungsinvestition
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  7. Peltzman Revisited
    Quantifying 21st Century Opportunity Costs of FDA Regulation
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    This paper revisits Peltzman (1973) in light of two recent opportunities to quantitatively assess tradeoffs in drug regulation. First, reduced regulatory barriers to drug manufacturing associated with the 2017 reauthorization of Generic Drug User... mehr

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    This paper revisits Peltzman (1973) in light of two recent opportunities to quantitatively assess tradeoffs in drug regulation. First, reduced regulatory barriers to drug manufacturing associated with the 2017 reauthorization of Generic Drug User Fee Amendments were followed by significantly more entry and lower consumer prices for prescription drugs. Using a simple and versatile industry model and historical data on entry, I find that easing generic restrictions discourages innovation, but this welfare cost is more than offset by consumer benefits from enhanced competition, especially after 2016. Second, accelerated vaccine approval in 2020 had unprecedented net benefits as it not only improved health but substantially changed the trajectory of the wider economy. The evidence suggests that cost-benefit analysis of FDA regulation is incomplete without accounting for substitution toward potentially unsafe and ineffective treatments that are both outside FDA jurisdiction and heavily utilized prior to FDA approval. Moreover, the policy processes initiating these 21st century regulatory changes show a clear influence of Peltzman's 1973 findings

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w29574
    Schlagworte: Arzneimittel; Arzneimittelrecht; Pharmaindustrie; Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse; USA
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  8. Lethal Unemployment Bonuses? Substitution and Income Effects on Substance Abuse, 2020-21
    Erschienen: 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Marginal prices fell, and disposable incomes increased, for drug and alcohol consumers during the pandemic. Most of the amount, timing, and composition of the 240,000 deaths involving alcohol and drugs since early 2020 can be explained by income... mehr

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    Marginal prices fell, and disposable incomes increased, for drug and alcohol consumers during the pandemic. Most of the amount, timing, and composition of the 240,000 deaths involving alcohol and drugs since early 2020 can be explained by income effects and category-specific price changes. For alcohol, the pandemic shifted consumption from bars and restaurants to homes, where marginal money prices are lower. For more dangerous illegal drugs like fentanyl and methamphetamine, the full price of consumption also significantly fell whenever employment became financially less attractive, as it was while unemployment bonuses were elevated. Both the wage effect and income effects further reduced marginal opioid prices by inducing shifts toward cheap fentanyl. Drug mortality dipped in the months between the $600 and $300 bonuses, especially for age groups participating most in UI. A corollary to this analysis is that national employment rates will be slow to recover due to the increased prevalence of alcohol and, especially, drug addiction

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w29719
    Schlagworte: Drogenkonsum; Alkoholkonsum; Sterblichkeit; Coronavirus; Haushaltseinkommen; Arbeitslosenversicherung; Privater Konsum; Substitutionseffekt; Einkommenseffekt; USA
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  9. The Value of Pharmacy Benefit Management
    Erschienen: July 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    In theory, equilibrium profits for drug patent holders would not involve significant restraints on production and patient utilization if the market had a mechanism for two-part pricing (Oi 1971) or quantity commitments (Murphy, Snyder, and Topel... mehr

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    In theory, equilibrium profits for drug patent holders would not involve significant restraints on production and patient utilization if the market had a mechanism for two-part pricing (Oi 1971) or quantity commitments (Murphy, Snyder, and Topel 2014). In fact, patent expiration has little effect on drug utilization especially when those drugs are delivered through insurance plans. This paper provides a quantitative model consistent with the theory and evidence in which pharmacy benefit management on behalf of insurance plans serves these and other purposes in both monopoly and oligopoly provider settings. Calibrating the model to the U.S. market, I conclude that pharmacy benefit management is worth at least $145 billion annually beyond its resource costs. PBM services add at least $192 billion annually in value to society compared to a manufacturer price-control regime. Requiring all PBM services to be self-provided by plan sponsors would forgo about 40 percent of the net value of PBM services largely by increasing management costs. Due to changes in the incidence of PBM services over the drug life cycle, the services encourage innovation even though they reduce the profits of incumbent manufacturers

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w30231
    Schlagworte: Arzneimittel; Pharmahandel; Pharmaindustrie; Patent; Unvollkommener Markt; Monopol; Oligopol; USA; Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection; Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations; Analysis of Health Care Markets; Health Insurance, Public and Private; Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks
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  10. Non-Covid Excess Deaths, 2020-21
    Collateral Damage of Policy Choices?
    Erschienen: June 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    From April 2020 through at least the end of 2021, Americans died from non-Covid causes at an average annual rate 97,000 in excess of previous trends. Hypertension and heart disease deaths combined were elevated 32,000. Diabetes or obesity,... mehr

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    From April 2020 through at least the end of 2021, Americans died from non-Covid causes at an average annual rate 97,000 in excess of previous trends. Hypertension and heart disease deaths combined were elevated 32,000. Diabetes or obesity, drug-induced causes, and alcohol-induced causes were each elevated 12,000 to 15,000 above previous (upward) trends. Drug deaths especially followed an alarming trend, only to significantly exceed it during the pandemic to reach 108,000 for calendar year 2021. Homicide and motor-vehicle fatalities combined were elevated almost 10,000. Various other causes combined to add 18,000. While Covid deaths overwhelmingly afflict senior citizens, absolute numbers of non-Covid excess deaths are similar for each of the 18-44, 45-64, and over-65 age groups, with essentially no aggregate excess deaths of children. Mortality from all causes during the pandemic was elevated 26 percent for working-age adults (18-64), as compared to 18 percent for the elderly. Other data on drug addictions, non-fatal shootings, weight gain, and cancer screenings point to a historic, yet largely unacknowledged, health emergency

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w30104
    Schlagworte: Sterblichkeit; Krankheit; Diabetes; Herzkrankheit; Coronavirus; Drogenkonsum; USA; Incidence; Health Behavior; Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health; Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts
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  11. Prices and federal policies in opioid markets
    Erschienen: February 2020
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / National Bureau of Economic Research ; 26812
    Schlagworte: Arzneimittel; Drogenpolitik; Drogenkonsum; USA
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  12. Restrict the Middleman?
    Quantitative Models of PBM Regulations and Their Consequences
    Erschienen: March 2023
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    This paper provides the first quantitative economic models of pharmacy benefit management regulation. The price-theoretic models allow for various market frictions and imperfections including market power, coordination costs, tax distortions, and... mehr

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    This paper provides the first quantitative economic models of pharmacy benefit management regulation. The price-theoretic models allow for various market frictions and imperfections including market power, coordination costs, tax distortions, and incomplete innovation incentives. A rigorous economic interpretation is provided for what are sometimes called "rebate walls" or "rebate traps." Applicable types of regulation include rebate rules, such as the HHS rebate rule and the Insulin Act; disclosure requirements such as the PBM Transparency Act of 2023; and pharmacy contract restrictions such as the CMS Medicare rule to take effect in 2024. Utilization of brands and generics, plan spending, cost sharing, spillovers to nonpharmacy medical spending, government budgets, and the pace of drug innovation are among the outcomes tracked by the open-source model

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w30998
    Schlagworte: Pharmahandel; Regulierung; Gesundheitsmarkt; Arzneimittelmarkt; Unvollkommener Markt; Wettbewerbspolitik; USA; Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection; Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations; Analysis of Health Care Markets; Health Insurance, Public and Private; Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks; Economics of Regulation
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  13. Beyond Pigou
    Externalities and Civil Society in the Supply-Demand Framework
    Erschienen: March 2023
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    The extent of voluntary cooperation in the presence of externalities is shown as an equilibrium outcome in the supply and demand framework. The analysis uses familiar ingredients to provide a new way of understanding the results of the extensive... mehr

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    The extent of voluntary cooperation in the presence of externalities is shown as an equilibrium outcome in the supply and demand framework. The analysis uses familiar ingredients to provide a new way of understanding the results of the extensive literature beginning with Buchanan, Coase, Ostrom, Shapley, Telser, Tullock, and Williamson showing that a Pigouvian tax is not the only alternative to independently acting individuals who are coordinated merely through distorted market prices. Voluntary cooperation can have a far different incidence than Pigouvian taxes and subsidies while changing the character of the costs resulting from externalities. The paper discusses applications including forest management, volume discounts, residential associations, energy policy, the scope of planning of household activities, and the role of workplaces in preventing infectious disease

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w31095
    Schlagworte: Externer Effekt; Pigou-Steuer; Internalisierung externer Effekte; Externalities; Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations; Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies; Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope
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  14. The Economic Opportunity Cost of Green Recovery Plans
    Erschienen: February 2023
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Advocates in several countries have promoted a "green recovery" from the pandemic, with an emphasis on measures to address climate objectives. We evaluate proposals for the United States and find that as stated, ambitious plans to further cut... mehr

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    Advocates in several countries have promoted a "green recovery" from the pandemic, with an emphasis on measures to address climate objectives. We evaluate proposals for the United States and find that as stated, ambitious plans to further cut emissions from transportation and electricity will require more inputs to produce the same outputs, resulting in recurring costs of up to $483 billion per year. We forecast that real GDP and consumption will be 2-3 percent less in the long run if policies are implemented as stated, underscoring the opportunity costs of achieving green objectives when resources might be more efficiently deployed

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w30956
    Schlagworte: Stabilisierungspolitik; Klimapolitik; Wirtschaftsprognose; Wirkungsanalyse; USA; General; Government Policy; Climate; Natural Disasters and Their Management; Global Warming; Government Policy
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource, illustrations (black and white)
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    Hardcopy version available to institutional subscribers

  15. A Final Report Card on the States' Response to COVID-19
    Erschienen: April 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Almost exactly two years ago COVID-19 spread to the United States. Following the federalism model, the 50 states and their governors and legislators made many of their own pandemic policy choices to mitigate the damage from the virus. States learned... mehr

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    Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky
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    Almost exactly two years ago COVID-19 spread to the United States. Following the federalism model, the 50 states and their governors and legislators made many of their own pandemic policy choices to mitigate the damage from the virus. States learned from one another over time about what policies worked most and least effectively in terms of containing the virus while minimizing the negative effects of lockdown strategies on businesses and children This study is an expanded and updated version of an October 2020 report card of how pandemic health, economy, and policy varied across the 50 states and the District of Columbia (Committee to Unleash Prosperity 2020). It examines three variables: health outcomes, economic performance throughout the pandemic, and impact on education

     

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    Sprache: Englisch
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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w29928
    Schlagworte: Coronavirus; Epidemie; Lockdown; Arbeitslosigkeit; Bruttoinlandsprodukt; Schulbesuch; Sterblichkeit; Wirkungsanalyse; USA
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource, illustrations (black and white)
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  16. A note on the time-elimination method for solving recursive dynamic economic models
    Erschienen: 1991

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    W 19 (116)
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    Schriftenreihe: Array ; 116
    Schlagworte: Ökonometrie; Wachstumstheorie; Theorie
    Umfang: 21, [5] S. : graph. Darst
  17. Economic activity and the value of medical innovation during a pandemic
    Erschienen: April 2020
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / National Bureau of Economic Research ; 27060
    Schlagworte: Coronavirus; Lockdown; Volkswirtschaft; Wirkungsanalyse; USA
    Umfang: 22 Seiten
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    Erscheint auch als Online-Ausgabe

  18. Ending Pay for PBM Performance
    Consequences for Prescription Drug Prices, Utilization, and Government Spending
    Erschienen: September 2023
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Proposed "delinking" legislation would prohibit Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBMs) from being remunerated based on the rebates and discounts they negotiate for drug insurance plans serving Medicare beneficiaries. This policy would significantly change... mehr

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    Helmut-Schmidt-Universität, Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg, Universitätsbibliothek
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    Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky
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    Proposed "delinking" legislation would prohibit Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBMs) from being remunerated based on the rebates and discounts they negotiate for drug insurance plans serving Medicare beneficiaries. This policy would significantly change drug pricing and utilization and shift billions of dollars annually from patients and taxpayers to drug manufacturers and retail pharmacy companies. Annual federal spending on Medicare Part D premiums would increase $3 billion to $10 billion plus any concomitant increase in Medicare subsidies for out-of-pocket expenses. All of these consequences stem from the fact that PBMs are hired to obtain rebates and discounts but would no longer be compensated based on their results. The quantitative estimates utilize a large body of economic research showing how much "pay for performance" matters for economic outcomes. The price-theoretic models also account for various market frictions and imperfections including market power, coordination costs, tax distortions, and incomplete innovation incentives

     

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    Format: Online
    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w31667
    Schlagworte: Arzneimittel; Pharmahandel; Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung; Pharmaindustrie; Arzneimittelrecht; USA; Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection; Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations; Health Insurance, Public and Private; Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity; Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks; Economics of Regulation
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource, illustrations (black and white)
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    Hardcopy version available to institutional subscribers

  19. Measuring aggregate human capital
    Erschienen: 1995
    Verlag:  Nat. Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass.

    Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen
    1 : Z 121.5:5016
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    Technische Informationsbibliothek (TIB) / Leibniz-Informationszentrum Technik und Naturwissenschaften und Universitätsbibliothek
    KAP 9685
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    ZBW - Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft, Standort Kiel
    1995 K 691
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    ZBW - Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft, Standort Kiel
    W 1 (5016)
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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; 5016
    Schlagworte: Humankapital; Index; USA
    Umfang: 47 S, graph. Darst
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    Literaturverz. S. 47

  20. The empirical frequency of a pivotal vote
    Erschienen: 2001
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass.

    ZBW - Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft, Standort Kiel
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    RVK Klassifikation: QB 910
    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; 8590
    Schlagworte: Wahl; Theorie; USA
    Umfang: 28 S, graph. Darst
    Bemerkung(en):

    Literaturverz. S. 27 - 28

    Internetausg.: papers.nber.org/papers/W8590.pdf - lizenzpflichtig

  21. Labor market search and optimal retirement policy
    Erschienen: 2001
    Verlag:  NBER, Cambridge, Mass.

    ZBW - Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft, Standort Kiel
    W 1 (8591)
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    RVK Klassifikation: QB 910
    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; 8591
    Schlagworte: Altersgrenze; Arbeitsuche; Beschäftigungseffekt; Theorie; Labor market; Retirement; Social security
    Umfang: 19 S
    Bemerkung(en):

    Literaturverz. S. 18 - 19

    Internetausg.: papers.nber.org/papers/W8591.pdf - lizenzpflichtig

  22. A dual method of empirically evaluating dynamic competitive equilibrium models with market distortions, applied to the Great Depression and World War II
    Erschienen: 2002
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass.

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; 8775
    Schlagworte: Dynamisches Gleichgewicht; Steuerwirkung; Wachstumstheorie; Theorie; USA
    Umfang: 50 S, graph. Darst
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    Literaturverz. S. 47 - 50

    Internetausg.: papers.nber.org/papers/w8775.pdf - lizenzpflichtig

  23. A century of labor-leisure distortions
    Erschienen: 2002
    Verlag:  NBER, Cambridge, Mass.

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; 8774
    Schlagworte: Arbeitsangebot; Steuerwirkung; Arbeitsmarktpolitik; Gewerkschaft; USA; Hours of labor; Labor supply; Leisure; Wages
    Umfang: 54 S, graph. Darst
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    Internetausg.: papers.nber.org/papers/w8774.pdf - lizenzpflichtig

    Literaturverz. S. 50 - 54

  24. Inflation and the size of government
    Erschienen: 2002
    Verlag:  Div. of Research & Statistics, Federal Reserve Board [u.a.], Washington, DC

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    W 966 (2002.01)
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    Schriftenreihe: Finance and economics discussion series ; 2002-01
    Schlagworte: Inflation; Staatsquote; Zeitreihenanalyse; Korrelation; Welt
    Umfang: 32, [10], 4 S, graph. Darst
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    Literaturverz. S. 28 - 32

  25. Human capital, heterogeneity, and estimated degrees of intergenerational mobility
    Erschienen: 2000
    Verlag:  NBER, Cambridge, Mass.

    Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen
    1 : Z 121.5:7678
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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; 7678
    Schlagworte: Einkommen; Soziale Mobilität; Generationengerechtigkeit; Intergenerationale Übertragung; Humankapital; Erbe; Theorie
    Umfang: 42 S, graph. Darst
    Bemerkung(en):

    Literaturverz. S. 40 - 42

    Internetausg.: papers.nber.org/papers/W7678.pdf - lizenzpflichtig