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  1. Household survival strategies during COVID-19
    evidence from panel data in South Africa
    Autor*in: Eyal, Katherine
    Erschienen: [2021]
    Verlag:  SALDRU, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, Cape Town, South Africa

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    ISBN: 9781928516477
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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / SALDRU, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit ; number 285
    Schlagworte: Coronavirus; Epidemie; Infektionsschutz; Privater Haushalt; Einkommenseffekt; Coping-Strategie; Südafrika
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 50 Seiten), Illustrationen
  2. Life expectancy and income levels in Chile
    Erschienen: June 15, 2020
    Verlag:  Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Macul, Santiago, Chile

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    Schriftenreihe: Documento de trabajo / Instituto de Economia, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile ; 544 (2020)
    Schlagworte: Lebensstandard; Einkommenseffekt; Sterblichkeit; Chile
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 28 Seiten), Illustrationen
  3. Explaining the Income and Consumption Effects of COVID in India
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    The COVID-19 pandemic led to stark reductions in economic activity in India. We employ CMIE's Consumer Pyramids Household Survey to examine the timing, distribution, and mechanism of the impacts from this shock on income and consumption through... mehr

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    The COVID-19 pandemic led to stark reductions in economic activity in India. We employ CMIE's Consumer Pyramids Household Survey to examine the timing, distribution, and mechanism of the impacts from this shock on income and consumption through December 2020. First, we estimate large and heterogeneous drops in income, with ambiguous effects on inequality. While incomes of salaried workers fell 35%; incomes of daily laborers fell 75%. At the same time, we observe that income fell more for individuals from households in the highest income quartile. Second, we document an increase in effort to buffer income shocks by switching occupations. We employ a Roy Model to estimate the gains from occupation churn and find, surprisingly, that reservation wages fell, implying that the risk of COVID did not reduce the value of employment. Third, we find that consumption fell less than income, suggesting households were able to smooth the idiosyncratic components of the COVID shock as well as they did before COVID. Finally, consumption of food and fuel fell less than consumption of durables such as clothing and appliances. Following Costa (2001) and Hamilton (2001), we estimate Engel curves and find that changes in consumption reflect large price shocks (rather than a retreat to subsistence) in sectors other than food and fuel/power. In the food sector, it appear that lockdown successfully distinguished essential and non-essential services, at least to the extent that it did not increase the relative price of food. There is some suggestive evidence that the price shocks outside the food sector were larger in places with greater COVID-19 cases, even during the lockdown

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w28935
    Schlagworte: Coronavirus; Wirtschaftskrise; Einkommenseffekt; Konsumentenverhalten; Privater Konsum; Nachfragetheorie des Haushalts; Indien
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource, illustrations (black and white)
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  4. Welfare and Output with Income Effects and Demand Instability
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    We provide a non-parametric characterization of how welfare responds to changes in budget and production possibility sets when preferences are non-homothetic or subject to shocks, in both partial and general equilibrium. We generalize Hulten's... mehr

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    We provide a non-parametric characterization of how welfare responds to changes in budget and production possibility sets when preferences are non-homothetic or subject to shocks, in both partial and general equilibrium. We generalize Hulten's theorem, which is the basis for constructing aggregate quantities, to this context. We identify a new bias in measures of real consumption. This bias depends on the covariance of price changes and expenditure changes due to income effects or preference shocks. We apply our results to long-run and short-run phenomena. In the long-run, we show that structural transformation, if caused by income effects, is roughly twice as important for welfare than what is implied by standard measures of Baumol's cost disease. In the short-run, we show that when firms' demand shocks are correlated with their supply shocks, industry-level price and output indices are biased, and this bias does not disappear in the aggregate. Finally, we show that correlated supply and demand shifters make real GDP and aggregate TFP unreliable metrics for measuring production and productivity, and illustrate this using the Covid-19 crisis

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w28754
    Schlagworte: Konsum; Einkommenseffekt; Gesamtwirtschaftliche Nachfrage; Wohlfahrtsanalyse; Wohlfahrtsökonomik
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  5. Exchange Rates and Monetary Policy with Heterogeneous Agents
    Sizing up the Real Income Channel
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Introducing heterogeneous households to a New Keynesian small open economy model amplifies the real income channel of exchange rates: the rise in import prices from a depreciation lowers households' real incomes, and leads them to cut back on... mehr

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    Introducing heterogeneous households to a New Keynesian small open economy model amplifies the real income channel of exchange rates: the rise in import prices from a depreciation lowers households' real incomes, and leads them to cut back on spending. When the sum of import and export elasticities is one, this channel is offset by a larger Keynesian multiplier, heterogeneity is irrelevant, and expenditure switching drives the output response. With plausibly lower short-term elasticities, however, the real income channel dominates, and depreciation can be contractionary for output. This weakens monetary transmission and creates a dilemma for policymakers facing capital outflows. Delayed import price pass-through weakens the real income channel, while heterogeneous consumption baskets can strengthen it

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w28872
    Schlagworte: Geldpolitik; Geldpolitische Transmission; Kaufkraftparität; Kleine offene Volkswirtschaft; Multiplikator; Einkommenseffekt; Neoklassische Synthese
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  6. Exchange rates and monetary policy with heterogeneous agents
    sizing up the real income channel
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR), Stanford, CA

    Introducing heterogeneous households to a New Keynesian small open economy model amplifies the real income channel of exchange rates: the rise in import prices from a depreciation lowers households’ real incomes, and leads them to cut back on... mehr

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    Introducing heterogeneous households to a New Keynesian small open economy model amplifies the real income channel of exchange rates: the rise in import prices from a depreciation lowers households’ real incomes, and leads them to cut back on spending. When the sum of import and export elasticities is one, this channel is offset by a larger Keynesian multiplier, heterogeneity is irrelevant, and expenditure switching drives the output response. With plausibly lower short-term elasticities, however, the real income channel dominates, and depreciation can be contractionary for output. This weakens monetary transmission and creates a dilemma for policymakers facing capital outflows. Delayed import price pass-through weakens the real income channel, while heterogeneous consumption baskets can strengthen it.

     

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper / Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) ; no. 21, 032 (May, 2021)
    Schlagworte: Geldpolitik; Geldpolitische Transmission; Kaufkraftparität; Kleine offene Volkswirtschaft; Multiplikator; Einkommenseffekt; Neoklassische Synthese; Wechselkurs; Schock; Verteilungswirkung
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 93 Seiten), Illustrationen
  7. Essays in the empirical analysis of markets
    Erschienen: 2020

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    Schlagworte: Einzelhandel; Handelsmarke; Einkaufsverhalten; Wirtschaftskrise; Einkommenseffekt; Vermögenseffekt; Lastkraftwagen; Preis; Nachfrage; Schätzung; Deutschland
    Umfang: x, 147 Seiten, Diagramme, Karten, 21 cm
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    Dissertation, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, 2020

  8. Employment responses to income effect
    evidence from pension reform
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  DIW Berlin, German Institute for Economic Research, Berlin

    For the design of the pension system, it is crucial to disentangle the employment responses related to the substitution effect and the income effect. In this paper, we provide causal evidence regarding the importance of the income effect, which is... mehr

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    For the design of the pension system, it is crucial to disentangle the employment responses related to the substitution effect and the income effect. In this paper, we provide causal evidence regarding the importance of the income effect, which is generally assumed to be small or non-existent. We exploit a pension reform in Germany that raised pension bene- fits related to children. For the identification, we exploit the discontinuity induced by the reform: only mothers with children born before 1.1.1992 were affected by the pension reform. Children born after this cut-off date did not change pension income. We use a difference-in-differences estimator based on administrative data from the German pension insurance that includes complete individual employment histories. We find that income effects are significant and economically important. We show that the policy led to a reduction in the employment of affected females. Further, we are able to show effect heterogeneity on different dimensions: by treatment intensity, age of the mother, and pre-reform pension wealth.

     

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    Schriftenreihe: Discussion papers / Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung ; 1941
    Schlagworte: Rentenreform; Mütter; Einkommenseffekt; Beschäftigungseffekt; Deutschland
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (20 Seiten), Illustrationen
  9. Lethal Unemployment Bonuses? Substitution and Income Effects on Substance Abuse, 2020-21
    Erschienen: 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    Marginal prices fell, and disposable incomes increased, for drug and alcohol consumers during the pandemic. Most of the amount, timing, and composition of the 240,000 deaths involving alcohol and drugs since early 2020 can be explained by income... mehr

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    Marginal prices fell, and disposable incomes increased, for drug and alcohol consumers during the pandemic. Most of the amount, timing, and composition of the 240,000 deaths involving alcohol and drugs since early 2020 can be explained by income effects and category-specific price changes. For alcohol, the pandemic shifted consumption from bars and restaurants to homes, where marginal money prices are lower. For more dangerous illegal drugs like fentanyl and methamphetamine, the full price of consumption also significantly fell whenever employment became financially less attractive, as it was while unemployment bonuses were elevated. Both the wage effect and income effects further reduced marginal opioid prices by inducing shifts toward cheap fentanyl. Drug mortality dipped in the months between the $600 and $300 bonuses, especially for age groups participating most in UI. A corollary to this analysis is that national employment rates will be slow to recover due to the increased prevalence of alcohol and, especially, drug addiction

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w29719
    Schlagworte: Drogenkonsum; Alkoholkonsum; Sterblichkeit; Coronavirus; Haushaltseinkommen; Arbeitslosenversicherung; Privater Konsum; Substitutionseffekt; Einkommenseffekt; USA
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource, illustrations (black and white)
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  10. Benefit salience and labour supply
    Autor*in: Spittal, Peter
    Erschienen: 5 April 2022
    Verlag:  School of Economics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

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    Schriftenreihe: Discussion paper / [School of Economics, University of Bristol] ; 764 (22)
    Schlagworte: Öffentliche Sozialleistungen; Familienleistungsausgleich; Steuervergünstigung; Arbeitsangebot; Einkommenseffekt; Wohlfahrtsanalyse; Großbritannien
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 50 Seiten), Illustrationen
  11. Economic snapshot
    "a tight labour market but real incomes are falling"
    Autor*in: McDonnell, Tom
    Erschienen: [2022]
    Verlag:  Nevin Economic Research Institute, Dublin, Ireland

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    Schriftenreihe: NERI report series ; no. 18
    Schlagworte: Konjunktur; Inflation; Arbeitsmarkt; Offene Stellen; Einkommenseffekt; Irland
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 16 Seiten), Illustrationen
  12. A New Method for Measuring Welfare with Income Effects using Cross-Sectional Data
    Erschienen: October 2022
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass

    We show how to recover the money-metric utility function, which converts income at one point in time into equivalent income at another point in time, using repeated cross-sectional household data. Our procedure allows unrestricted preferences, but... mehr

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    We show how to recover the money-metric utility function, which converts income at one point in time into equivalent income at another point in time, using repeated cross-sectional household data. Our procedure allows unrestricted preferences, but requires that households' preferences be the same in both the cross-section and the time-series. In prior work, Jaravel and Lashkari (2022) provide a solution to this problem. We leverage a different theoretical insight to address this problem. Our idea is to trace out Hicksian (or compensated) demand curves through time by matching households on the same indifference curve at different points in time. Given Hicksian demand curves, we can construct cost-of-living indices and money-metric utility for every matched income level. We apply our method to household consumption survey data from the United Kingdom from 1974 to 2017. We find that the official annual inflation rate understates welfare-relevant inflation for the poorest households by around half a percentage point per year and overstates it for the richest households by around a quarter of a percentage point per year

     

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    Schriftenreihe: NBER working paper series ; no. w30549
    Schlagworte: Nutzenfunktion; Messung; Wissenschaftliche Methode; Einkommenseffekt; Verbraucherpreisindex; Haushaltsstatistik; Inflationsrate; Großbritannien; Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth; Environmental Accounts; Price Level; Inflation; Deflation
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource, illustrations (black and white)
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  13. Assessing the impact of childcare expansion in Mexico
    time use, employment and poverty
    Erschienen: August 2022
    Verlag:  UNRISD, Geneva, Switzerland

    Unpaid care work amounts to an astronomical figure of 2 billion hours per day in the world of which three quarters are performed by women. This reality explains, to a large extent, the little progress that has been seen in reducing gender gaps, as... mehr

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    Unpaid care work amounts to an astronomical figure of 2 billion hours per day in the world of which three quarters are performed by women. This reality explains, to a large extent, the little progress that has been seen in reducing gender gaps, as far as employment, wages and use time are concerned. Against this background, the so-called 3R strategy -the Recognition, Reduction and Redistribution of unpaid care work-has been accepted as the main policy intervention towards closing gender gaps (UN Commission on the Status of Women 2014). Based on a measurement method developed by the Levy Institute that combines time and income poverty (called LIMTIP), the authors of this report empirically analyze the net impact on well-being of the expansion of childcare services in Mexico. Specifically, they carry out a comprehensive evaluation with a gender perspective of job creation and income generation, changes in the paid and unpaid workload, and the risk that this may entail in terms of time poverty.

     

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    hdl: 10419/273856
    Schriftenreihe: Array ; 2022, 2
    Schlagworte: Zeitverwendung; Armut; Kinderbetreuung; Beschäftigungseffekt; Einkommenseffekt; Weibliche Arbeitskräfte; Mexiko
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 91 Seiten), Illustrationen
  14. Are large deficits and debt dangerous?
    Erschienen: February 2020
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / National Bureau of Economic Research ; 26727
    Schlagworte: Öffentliche Schulden; Haushaltsdefizit; Steuerwirkung; Einkommenseffekt; Generationengerechtigkeit; Overlapping Generations
    Umfang: 18 Seiten, Illustrationen
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  15. Economic and ethical considerations about the access to an income
    Erschienen: Janvier 2020

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    hdl: 2078.1/226297
    Schlagworte: Öffentliche Sozialleistungen; Einkommenseffekt; Sozialethik
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 187 Seiten)
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    Dissertation, Universite catholique de Louvain, 2020

  16. Why are average hours worked lower in richer countries?
    Erschienen: April 2020
    Verlag:  CESifo, Center for Economic Studies & Ifo Institute, Munich, Germany

    Why are average hours worked per adult lower in rich countries than in poor countries? We consider two natural explanations: income effects in preferences, in which leisure becomes more valuable when income rises, and distortionary tax systems, which... mehr

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    Why are average hours worked per adult lower in rich countries than in poor countries? We consider two natural explanations: income effects in preferences, in which leisure becomes more valuable when income rises, and distortionary tax systems, which are more prevalent in richer countries. To assess the importance of these two forces, we build a simple model of labor supply by heterogeneous individuals and calibrate it to match international data on labor income taxation, government transfers relative to GDP, and hours worked per adult. The model predicts that income effects are the main driving force behind the decline of average hours worked with GDP per capita. We reach a similar conclusion in an extended model that matches cross-country patterns of labor supply along the extensive and intensive margins and of the prevalence of subsistence self-employment.

     

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    hdl: 10419/217002
    Schriftenreihe: CESifo working paper ; no. 8251 (2020)
    Schlagworte: Arbeitsangebotsverhalten; Freizeit; Einkommenseffekt; Steuersystem; Entwicklungsländer; Industrieländer
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 50 Seiten), Illustrationen
  17. Why are average hours worked lower in richer countries?
    Erschienen: 13 December 2019
    Verlag:  Centre for Economic Policy Research, London

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    Schriftenreihe: Array ; DP14180
    Schlagworte: Arbeitsangebotsverhalten; Freizeit; Einkommenseffekt; Steuersystem; Entwicklungsländer; Industrieländer
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 50 Seiten), Illustrationen
  18. Why are average hours worked lower in richer countries?
    Erschienen: April 2020
    Verlag:  IZA - Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany

    Why are average hours worked per adult lower in rich countries than in poor countries? We consider two natural explanations: income effects in preferences, in which leisure becomes more valuable when income rises, and distortionary tax systems, which... mehr

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    Why are average hours worked per adult lower in rich countries than in poor countries? We consider two natural explanations: income effects in preferences, in which leisure becomes more valuable when income rises, and distortionary tax systems, which are more prevalent in richer countries. To assess the importance of these two forces, we build a simple model of labor supply by heterogeneous individuals and calibrate it to match international data on labor income taxation, government transfers relative to GDP, and hours worked per adult. The model predicts that income effects are the main driving force behind the decline of average hours worked with GDP per capita. We reach a similar conclusion in an extended model that matches cross-country patterns of labor supply along the extensive and intensive margins and of the prevalence of subsistence self-employment.

     

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    hdl: 10419/216468
    Schriftenreihe: Discussion paper series / IZA ; no. 13156
    Schlagworte: Arbeitsangebotsverhalten; Freizeit; Einkommenseffekt; Steuersystem; Entwicklungsländer; Industrieländer
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 51 Seiten), Illustrationen
  19. Why are average hours worked lower in richer countries?
    Erschienen: December 2019
    Verlag:  National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper series / National Bureau of Economic Research ; 26554
    Schlagworte: Arbeitsangebotsverhalten; Freizeit; Einkommenseffekt; Steuersystem; Entwicklungsländer; Industrieländer
    Umfang: 46 Seiten, Illustrationen
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  20. Income adequacy in retirement: evidence from the Irish longitudinal study on ageing (TILDA)
    Erschienen: July 21, 2020
    Verlag:  ESRI, Economic & Social Research Institute, Dublin

    Those who are not married or cohabitating in the years before retirement are at greater risk of having inadequate income in retirement, according to a new study published today by the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI). mehr

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    Those who are not married or cohabitating in the years before retirement are at greater risk of having inadequate income in retirement, according to a new study published today by the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI).

     

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    ISBN: 9780707005300
    Weitere Identifier:
    hdl: 10419/230313
    Schriftenreihe: ESRI research series ; number 107
    Schlagworte: Ehe; Rentenpolitik; Rentenfinanzierung; Einkommenseffekt; Längsschnittanalyse; Irland
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 60 Seiten), Illustrationen
  21. Trade and urbanization
    evidence from Hungary
    Erschienen: December 2020
    Verlag:  Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Department of Economics and Business, Barcelona

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    Schriftenreihe: Economics working paper series ; no. 1858
    Schlagworte: Grenzregion; Außenhandel; Urbanisierung; Einkommenseffekt; Schätztheorie; Nachkriegszeit; Geschichte; Ungarn
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 64 Seiten), Illustrationen
  22. Wirtschaftsfaktor Tourismus
    Vorträge einer Tagung der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Angewandte Geographie Münster e.V. (AAG) am Institut für Geographie der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster und des Arbeitskreises Tourismus des Deutschen Verbandes für Angewandte Geographie e.V. (DVAG) in Münster 1998
    Beteiligt: Schnell, Peter (Hrsg.)
    Erschienen: 1999
    Verlag:  Inst. für Geographie der Westf. Wilhelms-Univ. Münster, Münster

    Universität Potsdam, Universitätsbibliothek
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    Beteiligt: Schnell, Peter (Hrsg.)
    Sprache: Deutsch; Englisch
    Medientyp: Buch (Monographie)
    Format: Druck
    ISBN: 3980393569
    RVK Klassifikation: RB 10081 ; QR 562 ; RC 20783 ; RB 10783
    Schriftenreihe: Münstersche geographische Arbeiten ; 42
    Schlagworte: Tourismus; Tourismuswirtschaft; Räumliche Wirkung; Gesamtwirtschaftliche Nachfrage; Privater Konsum; Wertschöpfung; Beschäftigungseffekt; Einkommenseffekt; Wirtschaftsgeographie; Deutschland
    Umfang: IV, 91 S., graph. Darst., Kt.
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  23. Costs of taxation and the benefits of public goods
    the role of income effects
    Erschienen: 2005
    Verlag:  World Bank, Development Research Group, Trade Team, Washington, DC

    Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Haus Unter den Linden
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    Quelle: Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin
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    Schriftenreihe: Policy research working paper ; 3700
    Schlagworte: Einkommenseffekt; Öffentliche Güter; Steuer; Excess Burden; Theorie; Taxation; Public goods; Labor supply
    Umfang: 30 S
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  24. Employment responses to income effect
    evidence from pension reform
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  DIW Berlin, German Institute for Economic Research, Berlin

    For the design of the pension system, it is crucial to disentangle the employment responses related to the substitution effect and the income effect. In this paper, we provide causal evidence regarding the importance of the income effect, which is... mehr

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    For the design of the pension system, it is crucial to disentangle the employment responses related to the substitution effect and the income effect. In this paper, we provide causal evidence regarding the importance of the income effect, which is generally assumed to be small or non-existent. We exploit a pension reform in Germany that raised pension bene- fits related to children. For the identification, we exploit the discontinuity induced by the reform: only mothers with children born before 1.1.1992 were affected by the pension reform. Children born after this cut-off date did not change pension income. We use a difference-in-differences estimator based on administrative data from the German pension insurance that includes complete individual employment histories. We find that income effects are significant and economically important. We show that the policy led to a reduction in the employment of affected females. Further, we are able to show effect heterogeneity on different dimensions: by treatment intensity, age of the mother, and pre-reform pension wealth.

     

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    Weitere Identifier:
    hdl: 10419/233043
    Schriftenreihe: Discussion papers / Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung ; 1941
    Schlagworte: Rentenreform; Mütter; Einkommenseffekt; Beschäftigungseffekt; Deutschland
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (20 Seiten), Illustrationen
  25. It’s Not All Fiscal: Effects of Income, Fiscal Policy, and Wealth on Private Consumption
    Erschienen: 2015
    Verlag:  International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C

    We attempt to disentangle income and wealth effects on consumption by disaggregating both the different types of income and wealth. We estimate a consumption function for a panel of quarterly data for 14 advanced economies spanning 1998 to 2012,... mehr

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    We attempt to disentangle income and wealth effects on consumption by disaggregating both the different types of income and wealth. We estimate a consumption function for a panel of quarterly data for 14 advanced economies spanning 1998 to 2012, using an error correction specification. We find a significant long-term relation between consumption and the different components of income and wealth. While fiscal policy had direct effects on consumption, the analysis suggests that wealth effects were sizeable, and therefore need to be kept in mind when analyzing consumption trends going forward

     

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    Quelle: Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin
    Sprache: Englisch
    Medientyp: Ebook
    Format: Online
    ISBN: 151358474X; 9781513584744
    Weitere Identifier:
    Schriftenreihe: IMF Working Papers ; 15, 112
    Schlagworte: Privater Konsum; Finanzpolitik; Einkommenseffekt; Vermögen; Grundeigentum; Private Verschuldung; Makroökonomische Konsumfunktion; Industrieländer
    Umfang: Online-Ressource (30 p)