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  1. Automation, globalization and vanishing jobs
    a labor market sorting view
    Autor*in: Faia, Ester; Laffitte, Sébastien; Mayer, Maximilian; Ottaviano, Gianmarco I. P.
    Erschienen: [2020]
    Verlag:  Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science, London

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    Schriftenreihe: CEP discussion paper ; no 1695 (May 2020)
    Schlagworte: automation; offshoring; two-sided heterogeneity; positive assortativity; wage inequality; horizontal specialization; core-task-biased technological change
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 58 Seiten), Illustrationen
  2. Telemigration and development
    on the offshorability of teleworkable jobs
    Autor*in: Baldwin, Richard E.; Dingel, Jonathan
    Erschienen: 17 October 2021
    Verlag:  Centre for Economic Policy Research, London

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    Schriftenreihe: Array ; DP16641
    Schlagworte: Telemigration; Service-led development; offshoring; service trade
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 26 Seiten), Illustrationen
  3. How the past of outsourcing and offshoring is the future of post-pandemic remote work
    a typology, a model, and a review
    Autor*in: Erickson, Christopher L.; Norlander, Peter
    Erschienen: 2021
    Verlag:  Global Labor Organization (GLO), Essen

    Information and communication technology (ICT) challenges traditional assumptions about the capacity to manage workers beyond organizational and physical boundaries. A typology connects a variety of non-traditional work organizations made possible by... mehr

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    Information and communication technology (ICT) challenges traditional assumptions about the capacity to manage workers beyond organizational and physical boundaries. A typology connects a variety of non-traditional work organizations made possible by ICT, including offshoring, outsourcing, remote work, virtual companies, and platforms. A model illustrates how new technology serves as a proximate cause for a revision of social contracts between capital, labor and government reached through bargaining, and how external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the institutional environment, and limitations in practice influence how technology changes the organization of work. An historical case illustrates the general features of the model, and a review of the outsourcing and offshoring literature provides instructive examples of how features of the model will potentially influence the future of post-pandemic remote work.

     
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    Schriftenreihe: GLO discussion paper ; no. 913
    Schlagworte: Informationstechnik; Arbeitsorganisation; Auslandsverlagerung; Telearbeit; Virtuelle Organisation; Schock; Institutioneller Wandel; information and communication technology; institutional change; offshoring; outsourcing; remote work
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 38 Seiten), Illustrationen
  4. FDI and onshore employment dynamics
    Autor*in: Koerner, Konstantin; Moritz, Michael; Schäffler, Johannes
    Erschienen: 10 May 2021
    Verlag:  Institute for Employment Research of the Federal Employment Agency, Nürnberg

    In this paper, we revisit questions about the onshore employment effects of firms that conduct foreign direct investment (FDI) in countries with substantially lower average wages. Our results derive from the use of rich administrative records on the... mehr

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    In this paper, we revisit questions about the onshore employment effects of firms that conduct foreign direct investment (FDI) in countries with substantially lower average wages. Our results derive from the use of rich administrative records on the universe of employees in German multinational enterprises (MNEs) that were active in the Czech Republic in 2010. Compared with former studies, the unique dataset in this study includes a much higher fraction of small and medium-sized firms and leads to strikingly different results for service MNEs. Applying coarsened exact matching for firms and an event-study design, we show that the domestic employment growth of MNEs decreases relative to that of non-MNEs and that the affected workers are those with low or medium educational attainment in the manufacturing sector and with medium or high educational attainment in the service sector. Regarding workers' tasks, our results do not show that FDI affects routine jobs beyond a worker's skill level. Wir analysieren die heimischen Beschäftigungseffekte von Unternehmen mit Niederlassungen in Niedriglohnländern. Essentiell für unsere neuen Ergebnisse ist die Nutzung administrativer Daten zur Population der deutschen multinationalen Unternehmen, die 2010 in der Tschechischen Republik tätig waren. Im Vergleich zu früheren Studien enthält der Datensatz einen sehr viel höheren Anteil kleiner und mittelständischer Unternehmen. Dadurch weichen unsere Ergebnisse insbesondere im Dienstleistungssektor von der bisherigen Literatur ab. Methodisch verwenden wir Coarsened Exact Matching, um sehr ähnliche Unternehmen zu untersuchen, welche sich ausschließlich hinsichtlich ihrer Investitionsentscheidung im Ausland unterscheiden. In einem Event-Study-Ansatz zeigen wir schließlich, dass das inländische Beschäftigungswachstum von multinationalen Unternehmen im Vergleich zu nichtmultinationalen Unternehmen abnimmt und dass im verarbeitenden Gewerbe Beschäftigte mit niedrigem oder mittlerem Bildungsabschluss und im Dienstleistungssektor Beschäftigte mit mittlerem oder hohem Bildungsniveau davon betroffen sind. In Bezug auf die Aufgaben/Tasks der Angestellten ergeben unsere Resultate keine Hinweise auf Auswirkungen von ausländischen Direktinvestitionen auf Routinetätigkeiten, die über das Qualifikationsniveau hinausgehen.

     
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    Schriftenreihe: IAB-discussion paper ; 2021, 9
    Schlagworte: economic integration; foreign direct investment; labor demand; multinational firms; offshoring; skills
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 49 Seiten), Illustrationen
  5. The Leontief Paradox redux
    Autor*in: Kiyota, Kōzō
    Erschienen: 7 October, 2020
    Verlag:  Institute for Economic Studies, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan

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    Schriftenreihe: KEIO-IES discussion paper series ; DP2020, 018 (7 October, 2020)
    Schlagworte: Leontief Paradox; Technology differences; Trade imbalance; Nonhomothetic preferences; Armington home bias; offshoring
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 28 Seiten)
  6. Robots, offshoring and welfare
    Autor*in: Bonfiglioli, Alessandra; Crinò, Rosario; Gancia, Gino Alessandro; Papadakis, Ioannis
    Erschienen: 15 July 2021
    Verlag:  Centre for Economic Policy Research, London

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    Schriftenreihe: Array ; DP16363
    Schlagworte: automation; Displacement; offshoring; robots
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 46 Seiten), Illustrationen
  7. Interlocking margins
    a framework on the interaction of offshoring and outsourcing decisions
    Autor*in: Jiang, Edwin
    Erschienen: June 2021
    Verlag:  Australian National University, Crawford School of Public Policy, Centre for Applied Macroeconomic Analysis, Canberra

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    Schriftenreihe: CAMA working paper ; 2021, 53 (July 2021)
    Schlagworte: international trade; offshoring; outsourcing
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 21 Seiten), Illustrationen
  8. Patterns of integration in global value chains and the changing structure of employment in Europe
    Autor*in: Bontadini, Filippo; Evangelista, Rinaldo; Meliciani, Valentina; Savona, Maria
    Erschienen: September 1, 2021
    Verlag:  Luiss SEP, [Rom]

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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper / Luiss School of European Political Economy ; 2021, 12
    Schlagworte: Beschäftigungsstruktur; Strukturwandel; Auslandsverlagerung; Globale Wertschöpfungskette; Hochtechnologie; Wissensintensives Unternehmen; Europa; Global Value Chains; Employment; offshoring; KIBS; High-tech manufacturing; skills
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 40 Seiten), Illustrationen
  9. Offshoring, domestic employment and production
    evidence from the German International Sourcing Survey
    Autor*in: Kaus, Wolfhard; Zimmermann, Markus
    Erschienen: [02. Mai 2022]
    Verlag:  Halle Institute for Economic Research (IWH) - Member of the Leibniz Association, Halle (Saale), Germany

    This paper analyses the effect of offshoring (i.e., the relocation of activities previously performed in-house to foreign countries) on various firm outcomes (domestic employment, production, and productivity). It uses data from the International... mehr

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    This paper analyses the effect of offshoring (i.e., the relocation of activities previously performed in-house to foreign countries) on various firm outcomes (domestic employment, production, and productivity). It uses data from the International Sourcing Survey (ISS) 2017 for Germany, linked to other firm level data such as business register and ITGS data. First, we find that offshoring is a rare event: In the sample of firms with 50 or more persons employed, only about 3% of manufacturing firms and 1% of business service firms have performed offshoring in the period 2014-2016. Second, difference-in-differences propensity score matching estimates reveal a negative effect of offshoring on domestic employment and production. Most of this negative effect is not because the offshoring firms shrink, but rather because they don’t grow as fast as the non-offshoring firms. We further decompose the underlying employment dynamics by using direct survey evidence on how many jobs the firms destroyed/created due to offshoring. Moreover, we do not find an effect on labour productivity, since the negative effect on domestic employment and production are more or less of the same size. Third, the German data confirm previous findings for Denmark that offshoring is associated with an increase in the share of ‘produced goods imports’, i.e. offshoring firms increase their imports for the same goods they continue to produce domestically. In contrast, it is not the case that offshoring firms increase the share of intermediate goods imports (a commonly used proxy for offshoring), as defined by the BEC Rev. 5 classification.

     
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    Schriftenreihe: IWH discussion papers ; 2022, no. 14 (May 2022)
    Schlagworte: international sourcing; offshoring; productivity
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (III, 52 Seiten, 3,38 MB), Diagramm
  10. Offshoring and labor markets in developing countries
    lessons learned and questions remaining about offshoring and labor markets in developing countries
    Autor*in: Basu, Arnab K.; Chau, Nancy H.
    Erschienen: September 2022
    Verlag:  Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit GmbH (IZA), Bonn

    Developing countries are often seen as unquestionable beneficiaries in the phenomenal rise of global value chains in international trade. Offshoring-the cross-border trade in intermediate goods and services which facilitate country-level... mehr

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    Developing countries are often seen as unquestionable beneficiaries in the phenomenal rise of global value chains in international trade. Offshoring-the cross-border trade in intermediate goods and services which facilitate country-level specialization in subsets of production tasks-enables an early start in global trade integration even when the requisite technology and knowhow for cost-effective production from scratch to finish are not yet acquired. A growing economics literature suggests a more nuanced view, however. Policymakers should be mindful of issues related to inequality across firms and wages, labor standards, and effects of trade policy.

     
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    Schriftenreihe: IZA world of labor ; 2022, 499
    Schlagworte: offshoring; globalization; labor markets in developing countries
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 9 Seiten), Illustrationen
  11. Employment effects of offshoring, technological change and migration in a group of Western European economies
    impact on different occupations
    Autor*in: Landesmann, Michael; Leitner, Sandra M.
    Erschienen: March 2023
    Verlag:  Wiener Institut für Internationale Wirtschaftsvergleiche, Wien

    This paper estimates conditional demand models to examine the impact of offshoring, technological change, and migration on the labour demand of native workers differentiated by four different types of occupational groups: managers/professionals,... mehr

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    This paper estimates conditional demand models to examine the impact of offshoring, technological change, and migration on the labour demand of native workers differentiated by four different types of occupational groups: managers/professionals, clerical workers, craft (skilled) workers and manual workers. The analysis is conducted for an unbalanced panel of five economies Austria, Belgium, France, Spain, and Switzerland covering the period 2005-2018. Our results point to important and occupationspecific effects: offshoring seems to have beneficial employment effects for native craft workers in this set of economies, while negative effects for native manual workers across a wide set of industries (including manufacturing and services industries) and managers/professionals in manufacturing. Furthermore, there are important distinctions whether offshoring occurs in other advanced economies, in the EU13 or in developing countries. The analysis of the impact of technological change shows the strong positive impact which the additional IT equipment has on most occupational groups of native workers (with the exception of manual workers), while robotisation in manufacturing showed strongly negative impacts on the employment of all groups of workers and especially of craft workers. Increasing immigrant shares in the work forces showed strongly negative impacts on native workers - however, considering only the partial substitution effects and not including the potential for productivity and demand effects - and this is mostly accounted for by immigration from low- to medium-income source countries.

     
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    Schriftenreihe: Working paper / wiiw ; 226
    Schlagworte: Employment; occupational groups; offshoring; technological change; immigration
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 74 Seiten), Illustrationen
  12. Trade policy uncertainty, offshoring, and the environment
    evidence from US manufacturing establishments
    Autor*in: Choi, Jaerim; Hyun, Jay; Kim, Gueyon; Park, Ziho
    Erschienen: February 2023
    Verlag:  IZA - Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany

    We study long-run environmental impacts of trade liberalization on US manufacturing by exploiting a plausibly exogenous reduction in US trade policy uncertainty: the conferral of Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR) to China. Using detailed data... mehr

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    We study long-run environmental impacts of trade liberalization on US manufacturing by exploiting a plausibly exogenous reduction in US trade policy uncertainty: the conferral of Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR) to China. Using detailed data on establishment-level pollution emissions and business characteristics - including trade activities and global subsidiary information - from 1997 to 2017, we show that establishments reduce toxic emissions in response to a reduction in trade policy uncertainty. Emission abatement is mainly driven by a decline in pollution emission intensity, and not by establishment exits or a reduction in production scale. Emission reduction is more pronounced for (i) establishments with foreign sourcing networks and (ii) those under more stringent environmental regulations. We provide further evidence that supports the pollution haven hypothesis whereby offshoring is central to the mechanism - US manufacturers begin to source from abroad and establish more subsidiaries in China after PNTR, especially those that emit pollutants heavily.

     
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    hdl: 10419/272546
    Schriftenreihe: Discussion paper series / IZA ; no. 15919
    Schlagworte: pollution haven hypothesis; toxics release inventory; pollution emissions; trade and environment; trade policy uncertainty; offshoring; particulate matter; PNTR
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 69 Seiten), Illustrationen
  13. On trade policy preference and offshoring ties
    Autor*in: Bandyopadhyay, Subhayu; Basu, Arnab K.; Chau, Nancy H.; Mitra, Devashish
    Erschienen: December 2022
    Verlag:  IZA - Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany

    This paper unpacks the role of the domestic content of imports as a novel source of policy interdependence along the global supply chain. We show how a rise in local contents embodied in imports can skew national trade policy preferences, and pull... mehr

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    This paper unpacks the role of the domestic content of imports as a novel source of policy interdependence along the global supply chain. We show how a rise in local contents embodied in imports can skew national trade policy preferences, and pull upstream and downstream countries in asymmetric ways with respect to (i) the nature of unilaterally optimal trade policy prescriptions, and (ii) the attractiveness of leveraging market access-based dispute settlement procedures. We discuss the pros and cons of deep trade integration as a remedy, involving well-enforced labor standards both upstream and downstream as an integral part of trade agreements.

     
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    hdl: 10419/272409
    Schriftenreihe: Discussion paper series / IZA ; no. 15782
    Schlagworte: offshoring; dispute settlement reciprocity; labor standards
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 39 Seiten), Illustrationen
  14. Theory of supply chains: a working capital approach
    Autor*in: Kim, Se-jik; Shin, Hyun Song
    Erschienen: January 2023
    Verlag:  Bank for International Settlements, Monetary and Economic Department, [Basel]

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    Schriftenreihe: BIS working papers ; no 1070
    Schlagworte: global value chains; offshoring; trade finance
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 42 Seiten), Illustrationen
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    This paper is a revised version of Kim and Shin (2013) “Working capital, trade and macro ‡fluctuations”
  15. Global supply chains
    the looming "great reallocation"
    Autor*in: Alfaro, Laura; Chor, Davin
    Erschienen: 12 September 2023
    Verlag:  Centre for Economic Policy Research, London

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    Schriftenreihe: Array ; DP18457
    Schlagworte: Globale Wertschöpfungskette; Lieferkette; Globalisierung; Internationale Wirtschaft; Welt; Global value chains; offshoring; foreign direct investment; unit values; upstreamness; deglobalization
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 53 Seiten), Illustrationen
  16. The impact of offshoring and import competition on firm-level carbon emissions
    Autor*in: Leisner, Jonathan; Munch, Jakob Roland; Nielsen, August Twile; Schaur, Georg
    Erschienen: October 2023
    Verlag:  IZA - Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany

    We use Danish firm-level data to examine the causal link between carbon emissions, offshoring, and import competition. Offshoring reduces firms' emission intensity but increases their production. Import competition reduces firms' production without... mehr

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    We use Danish firm-level data to examine the causal link between carbon emissions, offshoring, and import competition. Offshoring reduces firms' emission intensity but increases their production. Import competition reduces firms' production without affecting their emission intensity. For Denmark, these effects imply that observed offshoring trends reduced the overall manufacturing emission intensity while import competition did not. However, despite the emission reducing effects in local manufacturing, offshoring did not affect global emissions. Furthermore, import competition substantially increased global emissions. Therefore, based on offshoring and Chinese import competition, our results suggest that international trade may be bad for the global environment.

     
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    hdl: 10419/282683
    Schriftenreihe: Discussion paper series / IZA ; no. 16556
    Schlagworte: carbon emissions; offshoring; import competition
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 54 Seiten), Illustrationen
  17. The impact of globalization on domestic employment
    Autor*in: Wei, Hao; Deng, Linlin; Zhou, Peng
    Erschienen: November 2022
    Verlag:  Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom

    Immigrants and offshore workers become important disturbing factors of domestic employment in the globalized economy. In this study we build a model with this feature to test how the three groups of workers in the labor force interact using a panel... mehr

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    Immigrants and offshore workers become important disturbing factors of domestic employment in the globalized economy. In this study we build a model with this feature to test how the three groups of workers in the labor force interact using a panel data of 155 countries over the period 1990-2015. We find that while immigrants replaced native workers (especially highly skilled ones), offshore workers who produce intermediate input imports do not. The productivity effect of offshoring is stronger for developed economies while the substitution effect of immigration is stronger for developing countries. Furthermore, the productivity effects of immigration and offshoring are stronger when governments impose less restrictions on international trade and domestic labor market.

     
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    hdl: 10419/284161
    Schriftenreihe: Cardiff economics working papers ; no. E2022, 18
    Schlagworte: immigration; offshoring; intermediate input imports; domestic employment; skill-bias effect
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 26 Seiten)
  18. Global supply chains
    the looming "great reallocation"
    Autor*in: Alfaro, Laura; Chor, Davin
    Erschienen: [2023]
    Verlag:  [Harvard Business School], [Boston, MA]

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    Auflage/Ausgabe: Draft: 30 August 2023
    Schriftenreihe: Working paper / Harvard Business School ; 24, 012
    Schlagworte: Global value chains; offshoring; foreign direct investment; unit values; upstreamness; deglobalization
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 51 Seiten), Illustrationen
  19. Monopsony power, offshoring, and a European minimum wage
    Autor*in: Egger, Hartmut; Kreickemeier, Udo; Wrona, Jens
    Erschienen: January 2024
    Verlag:  CESifo, Munich, Germany

    This paper sets up a two-country model of offshoring with monopolistically competitive product and monopsonistically competitive labour markets. In our model, an incentive for offshoring exists even between symmetric countries, because shifting part... mehr

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    This paper sets up a two-country model of offshoring with monopolistically competitive product and monopsonistically competitive labour markets. In our model, an incentive for offshoring exists even between symmetric countries, because shifting part of the production abroad reduces local labour demand and allows firms to more strongly execute their monopsonistic labour market power. However, offshoring between symmetric countries has negative welfare effects and therefore calls for policy intervention. In this context, we put forward the role of a common minimum wage and show that the introduction of a moderate minimum wage increases offshoring and reduces welfare. In contrast, a sizable minimum wage reduces offshoring and increases welfare. Beyond that, we also show that a sufficiently high common minimum wage cannot only eliminate offshoring but also inefficiencies in the resource allocation due to monopsonistic labour market distortions in closed economies.

     
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    hdl: 10419/296009
    Schriftenreihe: CESifo working papers ; 10920 (2024)
    Schlagworte: offshoring; minimum wage; welfare effects
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 27 Seiten)
  20. Automation and offshoring on wage inequality in Japan
    Autor*in: Kikuchi, Shinnosuke
    Erschienen: [2024]
    Verlag:  RIETI, [Tokyo, Japan]

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    Schriftenreihe: RIETI discussion paper series ; 24-E, 046 (April 2024)
    Schlagworte: automation; occupation; task; offshoring; labor market
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 25 Seiten), Illustrationen
  21. The effects of tariffs on employment in global value chains
    Autor*in: Barbé, André; Riker, David A.
    Erschienen: April 2017
    Verlag:  U.S. International Trade Commission, Washington, DC

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    Schriftenreihe: Economics working paper series / U.S. International Trade Commission ; no. 2017, 07-A
    Schlagworte: global value; chains; global supply chains; offshoring; employment; international trade
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 21 Seiten), Illustrationen
  22. Trade linkages and firm value
    evidence from the 2018 US-China "trade war"
    Autor*in: Huang, Yi; Chen, Lin; Liu, Sibo; Tang, Heiwai
    Erschienen: August 7, 2018
    Verlag:  The Graduate Institute Geneva, Center for Trade and Economic Integration, Genève

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    Auflage/Ausgabe: This version: August 7, 2018
    Schriftenreihe: CTEI working papers ; CTEI-2018, 04
    Schlagworte: Stock returns; event study; trade policy; offshoring; input-output linkages; global value chains
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 49 Seiten), Illustrationen
  23. Offshoring production while offshoring pollution?
    Autor*in: Li, Xiaoyang; Zhou, Yue Maggie
    Erschienen: February, 2016
    Verlag:  US Census Bureau, Center for Economic Studies, Washington, DC

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    Schriftenreihe: Working papers / Center for Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau ; 16-09
    Schlagworte: environmental strategy; pollution haven; offshoring; institutional arbitrage; corporate social responsibility
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 34 Seiten), Illustrationen
  24. Offshoring and skill-upgrading in French manufacturing
    Heckscher-Ohlin-Melitz view
    Autor*in: Carluccio, Juan; Cuñat, Alejandro; Fadinger, Harald; Fons-Rosen, Christian
    Erschienen: September 2015
    Verlag:  [Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Department of Economics and Business], [Barcelona]

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    Schriftenreihe: [Working papers / Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Department of Economics and Business ; 1490]
    Schlagworte: offshoring; heterogeneous firms; firm-level factor intensities; Heckscher Ohlin
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 54 Seiten), Illustrationen
  25. Unilateral environmental policy and offshoring
    Autor*in: Bolz, Simon J.; Naumann, Fabrice; Richter, Philipp M.
    Erschienen: April 2024
    Verlag:  CESifo, Munich, Germany

    Expanding on a general equilibrium model of offshoring, we analyze the effects of a unilateral emissions tax increase on the environment, income, and inequality. Heterogeneous firms allocate labor across production tasks and emissions abatement,... mehr

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    Expanding on a general equilibrium model of offshoring, we analyze the effects of a unilateral emissions tax increase on the environment, income, and inequality. Heterogeneous firms allocate labor across production tasks and emissions abatement, while only the most productive can benefit from lower labor and/or emissions costs abroad and offshore. We find a non-monotonic effect on global emissions, which decline if the initial difference in emissions taxes is small. For a sufficiently large difference, global emissions rise, implying emissions leakage of more than 100%. The underlying driver is a global technique effect: While the emissions intensity of incumbent non-offshoring firms declines, the cleanest firms start offshoring. Moreover, offshoring firms become dirtier, induced by a reduction in the foreign effective emissions tax in general equilibrium. Implementing a BCA prevents emissions leakage, reduces income inequality in the reforming country, but raises inequality across countries.

     
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    Schriftenreihe: CESifo working papers ; 11096 (2024)
    Schlagworte: offshoring; emissions leakage; environmental policy; BCA; heterogeneous firms; income inequality
    Umfang: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 68 Seiten), Illustrationen